Make insert / update with values from other tables

I did not understand your question very well because it is update in the title and in the context you use insert, but come on, you can use select to do this as follows.

Declare @disciplinas table
(
    Id_Disciplina int,
    Nome varchar(50),
    Descricao varchar(200),
    Aluno_Id int
)

insert into @disciplinas values(1,'sql','mod 1',1)

Declare @Alunos table
(
    Id_Aluno int,
    Descricao varchar(200),
    Id_Turma int,
    Nome varchar(50)
    -- ......
)
insert into @Alunos values(1,'.....',1, 'joão')
Declare @Licao table
(
    Id_Turma int,
    Id_Disciplina int,
    Licao int
    -- ......
)
insert into @Licao values(1,1,1)
Declare @Turma table
(
    Id_Turma int,
    Nome varchar(50)
    -- ......
)
insert into @Turma values(1,'teste 1')

Declare @Faltas_Licao table
(
    Id_Turma int,
    Id_Disciplina int,
    Licao int,
    Tipo varchar(50),
    Descricao varchar(200),
    Aluno_Id int
)

insert into @Faltas_Licao 

select t.Id_Turma, l.Id_Disciplina,l.Licao, 'falta', 'falta por atraso', a.Id_Aluno
from @Turma t
join @Licao l
on l.Id_Turma = t.Id_Turma
join @disciplinas d
on d.Id_Disciplina = l.Id_Disciplina
join @Alunos a
on a.Id_Aluno = d.Aluno_Id
-- where ...?? 


--ou update
update fl 
set fl.Id_Turma = t.Id_Turma, 
fl.Id_Disciplina = l.Id_Disciplina,
fl.Licao = l.Licao,
fl.Tipo = 'falta',
fl.Descricao = 'outro motivo', 
fl.Aluno_Id = a.Id_Aluno
from @Faltas_Licao fl
join @Turma t
on fl.Id_Turma = t.Id_Turma
join @Licao l
on l.Id_Turma = t.Id_Turma
join @disciplinas d
on d.Id_Disciplina = l.Id_Disciplina
join @Alunos a
on a.Id_Aluno = d.Aluno_Id
-- where ...?? 

select * from @Faltas_Licao